A cognitive examination of compulsive checkers' working memory and inhibitory performance

Checking is one of the most common symptoms observed in Obsessive Compulsive Disorder (OCD) with 50-80% of patients (Antony, Downie, & Swinson, 1998; Henderson & Pollard, 1988; Rasmussen & Eisen, 1988) and an additional ~15% of the general population demonstrating subclinical checking compulsions (Stein et al., 1997). A common finding is that checking actually impairs the memory of those items checked (van den Hout & Kindt, 2003a, 2003b), even though the mechanism underlying checking-related memory impairment has remained elusive. This is a shortcoming that we presently address in a series of short-term memory experiments and attentional tasks comparing high and low checkers (see VOCI; Thordarson et al., 2004). Generally, our memory tasks required stimuli to be remembered in their locations, which was designed to engage the episodic buffer (EB) of working memory (WM) (Baddeley, 2000). The key manipulation was to present an intermediate probe (between encoding and recall) in the form of a resolvable or misleading challenge which questioned an aspect of the encoding set; this was either present or absent, respectively. As expected, misleading probes specifically (Exp. 1, 2, extreme meta-comparison 3 & 9; Harkin & Kessler, 2009; 2011a; Harkin, Rutherford, & Kessler, 2011) and intermediate probes generally (Exp. 4; Harkin & Kessler, 2011a) tap into the inhibitory impairments of high (not low) checkers, which hampers EB functionality and impairs their memory. Indeed, it was only during misleading trials that high checkers made more unnecessary eye movements specifically to empty locations (Exp. 5; Harkin & Kessler, subm). Furthermore, for ecologically valid stimuli high checkers were impaired in inhibiting attention to threatening ‘ON’ states (Tasks 6 & 7; Harkin & Kessler, in press) and in their ability to recall if an appliance was ‘ON’ or ‘OFF’ (Exp. 8; Harkin, Rutherford, & Kessler, 2011). High checkers’ intact performance on baseline no-probe-1 trials excludes a capacity-based explanation of their WM impairments. Overall, confidence measures revealed a general task-independent impairment which was attenuated by an intermediate probe. These findings were then used to create a classification system based upon Executive-Functioning, Binding Complexity and Memory Load (EBL) to explain otherwise discrepant findings from 58 memory studies (Harkin & Kessler, 2011b). Thus, the contribution of this research is not only to (Exp. 1-9) indicate an actual mechanism (i.e., episodic buffer of WM) of memory impairment in checking/OCD but it also provides a new research platform on which to base where we will and will not observe memory impairments in OCD participants. The conclusion summarizes the main findings with respect to the development and maintenance of OCD symptoms, highlights limitations and provides solutions to these through future research

What checkers actually check: an eye tracking study of inhibitory control and working memory

<p>Background - Not only is compulsive checking the most common symptom in Obsessive Compulsive Disorder (OCD) with an estimated prevalence of 50–80% in patients, but approximately ~15% of the general population reveal subclinical checking tendencies that impact negatively on their performance in daily activities. Therefore, it is critical to understand how checking affects attention and memory in clinical as well as subclinical checkers. Eye fixations are commonly used as indicators for the distribution of attention but research in OCD has revealed mixed results at best.</p> <p>Methodology/Principal Finding - Here we report atypical eye movement patterns in subclinical checkers during an ecologically valid working memory (WM) manipulation. Our key manipulation was to present an intermediate probe during the delay period of the memory task, explicitly asking for the location of a letter, which, however, had not been part of the encoding set (i.e., misleading participants). Using eye movement measures we now provide evidence that high checkers’ inhibitory impairments for misleading information results in them checking the contents of WM in an atypical manner. Checkers fixate more often and for longer when misleading information is presented than non-checkers. Specifically, checkers spend more time checking stimulus locations as well as locations that had actually been empty during encoding.</p> <p>Conclusions/Significance - We conclude that these atypical eye movement patterns directly reflect internal checking of memory contents and we discuss the implications of our findings for the interpretation of behavioural and neuropsychological data. In addition our results highlight the importance of ecologically valid methodology for revealing the impact of detrimental attention and memory checking on eye movement patterns.</p&gt

How checking breeds doubt:reduced performance in a simple working memory task

A paradox of memory research is that repeated checking results in a decrease in memory certainty, memory vividness and confidence [van den Hout, M. A., & Kindt, M. (2003a). Phenomenological validity of an OCD-memory model and the remember/know distinction. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 41, 369–378; van den Hout, M. A., & Kindt, M. (2003b). Repeated checking causes memory distrust. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 41, 301–316]. Although these findings have been mainly attributed to changes in episodic long-term memory, it has been suggested [Shimamura, A. P. (2000). Toward a cognitive neuroscience of metacognition. Consciousness and Cognition, 9, 313–323] that representations in working memory could already suffer from detrimental checking. In two experiments we set out to test this hypothesis by employing a delayed-match-to-sample working memory task. Letters had to be remembered in their correct locations, a task that was designed to engage the episodic short-term buffer of working memory [Baddeley, A. D. (2000). The episodic buffer: a new component in working memory? Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 4, 417–423]. Of most importance, we introduced an intermediate distractor question that was prone to induce frustrating and unnecessary checking on trials where no correct answer was possible. Reaction times and confidence ratings on the actual memory test of these trials confirmed the success of this manipulation. Most importantly, high checkers [cf. VOCI; Thordarson, D. S., Radomsky, A. S., Rachman, S., Shafran, R, Sawchuk, C. N., & Hakstian, A. R. (2004). The Vancouver obsessional compulsive inventory (VOCI). Behaviour Research and Therapy, 42(11), 1289–1314] were less accurate than low checkers when frustrating checking was induced, especially if the experimental context actually emphasized the irrelevance of the misleading question. The clinical relevance of this result was substantiated by means of an extreme groups comparison across the two studies. The findings are discussed in the context of detrimental checking and lack of distractor inhibition as a way of weakening fragile bindings within the episodic short-term buffer of Baddeley's (2000) model. Clinical implications, limitations and future research are considered

Impaired Executive Functioning in Subclinical Compulsive Checking with Ecologically Valid Stimuli in a Working Memory Task

We previously showed that working memory (WM) performance of subclinical checkers can be affected if they are presented with irrelevant but misleading information during the retention period (Harkin and Kessler, 2009, 2011). The present study differed from our previous research in the three crucial aspects. Firstly, we employed ecologically valid stimuli in form of electrical kitchen appliances on a kitchen countertop in order to address previous criticism of our research with letters in locations as these may not have tapped into the primary concerns of checkers. Secondly, we tested whether these ecological stimuli would allow us to employ a simpler (un-blocked) design while obtaining similarly robust results. Thirdly, in Experiment 2 we improved the measure of confidence as a metacognitive variable by using a quantitative scale (0–100), which indeed revealed more robust effects that were quantitatively related to accuracy of performance. The task in the present study was to memorize four appliances, including their states (on/off), and their locations on the kitchen countertop. Memory accuracy was tested for the states of appliances in Experiment 1, and for their locations in Experiment 2. Intermediate probes were identical in both experiments and were administered during retention on 66.7% of the trials with 50% resolvable and 50% irresolvable/misleading probes. Experiment 1 revealed the efficacy of the employed stimuli by revealing a general impairment of high- compared to low checkers, which confirmed the ecological validity of our stimuli. In Experiment 2 we observed the expected, more differentiated pattern: High checkers were not generally affected in their WM performance (i.e., no general capacity issue); instead they showed a particular impairment in the misleading distractor-probe condition. Also, high checkers’ confidence ratings were indicative of a general impairment in metacognitive functioning. We discuss how specific executive dysfunction and general metacognitive impairment may affect memory traces in the short- and in the long-term

“It Helps if You Think of Yourself as a Radio Presenter!” A Lefebvrian Commentary on the Concerns, Conflicts and Opportunities of Online Block Teaching

The COVID-19 pandemic has generated shifts in how higher education provision is offered. In one UK institution block teaching was introduced. This way of teaching and learning has brought new challenges and opportunities for staff and students. To date, little research or theoretical discussion has investigated how this hybrid approach or differences between tutors and student can arise in the use of online teaching spaces (OTS) within a block-teaching format. The present paper focuses on the institution-wide implementation of an online block-teaching model at Manchester Metropolitan University in the United Kingdom. With a specific emphasis on observations and reflections on the experiences of undergraduate students’ and staff by one of the authors from the Department of Psychology who employed an online block teaching approach (6 weeks) from the beginning of block 1 during the academic year 2020/21. We provide a novel methodological advancement of Lefebvre’s (1991) Trialectic of Space to discuss how students and tutors jointly produce and experience learning and teaching within an online block teaching approach. Pre-existing behavioural, cognitive and emotional experiences of using online spaces, contribute to the curriculum, student-tutor and student-student dialogue. We also highlight the importance of community within an online block teaching approach. Applications of the Lefebvrian model (1991) to present pedagogical approaches along with avenues of future research are considered

The impact of continuing bonds between pet owners and their pets following the death of their pet: a systematic narrative synthesis

When a pet dies, owners can experience similar levels of grief as when a human dies. Previous research indicates the role of continuing bonds (CB) when a pet is alive. To understand the impact of these bonds after the pet has died, we conducted a systematic narrative synthesis according to the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses guidelines (PRISMA). Findings were heterogenous, yet there were still parallels in the literature. CB can sometimes aggravate and intensify grief experiences, particularly when pet grief is perceived as disenfranchised grief. However, identifying appropriate bonds can be useful to moderate the intensity of grief and be a valuable mechanism of support. CB can also help post-traumatic growth of owners

Modeling a multidimensional model of memory performance in obsessive-compulsive disorder:A multilevel meta-analytic review

Even though memory performance is a commonly researched aspect of obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD), a coherent and unified explanation of the role of specific cognitive factors has remained elusive. To address this, the present meta-analysis examined the predictive validity of Harkin and Kessler's (2011b) executive function, binding complexity, and memory load (EBL) Classification System concerning affected versus unaffected memory performance in OCD. We employed a multilevel meta-analytic approach (Viechtbauer, 2010) to accommodate the interdependent nature of the EBL model and interdependency of effect sizes (305 effect sizes from 144 studies, including 4,424 OCD patients). Results revealed that the EBL model predicted memory performance; that is, as EBL demand increases, those with OCD performed progressively worse on memory tasks. Executive function was the driving mechanism behind the EBL's impact on OCD memory performance, as it negated binding complexity, memory load, and visual or verbal task differences. Comparisons of subtask effect sizes were also generally in accord with the cognitive parameters of the EBL taxonomy. We conclude that standardized coding of tasks along individual cognitive dimensions and multilevel meta-analyses provides a new approach to examine multidimensional models of memory and cognitive performance in OCD and other disorders

Student experiences of assessment and feedback in the National Student Survey: an analysis of student written responses with pedagogical implications

The National Student Survey (NSS) indicates that students are less satisfied with Assessment and Feedback versus other dimensions of the NSS in Higher Education Institutions (HEIs) across the United Kingdom (UK). HEIs generally rely on quantitative Likert responses within the NSS to assess the quality of their provision while ignoring written comments. However, we propose that analysis of written comments is essential to understand students’ lived and multidimensional experiences. Therefore, we utilised a Framework Analysis to investigate students' written responses for assessment and feedback in the 2020 NSS. We identified high (n = 4) and low-scoring (n = 4) departments as those that scored the highest and lowest on assessment and feedback at an HEI institution in the UK. These groups scored above and below the NSS national average for assessment and feedback of 72.6% (Office for Students, 2020), at 84.6% and 66%, respectively. Our analysis of 10,628 words revealed five main themes of interaction and experience, assessment clarity, assessment fairness, timing, inspiration for the present and future, and eleven sub-themes. We used the frequency of words concurrently with these themes to identify areas of good pedagogical practice. For example, high-scoring departments provided easy-to-follow lectures (Theme 1) and assessment guidance (Theme 2), students perceived feedback as fair (Theme 3), tutors were appropriately responsive to students' attempts at communication (Theme 4), and assessments had clear applicability to future employability (Theme 5). Our findings highlight the suitability of our approach for academics and HEIs to improve their understanding and provision of assessment and feedback. We provide recommendations to improve assessment and feedback at a unit, program, and HEI level

Epileptogenesis after prolonged febrile seizures: mechanisms, biomarkers and therapeutic opportunities.

Epidemiological and recent prospective analyses of long febrile seizures (FS) and febrile status epilepticus (FSE) support the idea that in some children, such seizures can provoke temporal lobe epilepsy (TLE). Because of the high prevalence of these seizures, if epilepsy was to arise as their direct consequence, this would constitute a significant clinical problem. Here we discuss these issues, and describe the use of animal models of prolonged FS and of FSE to address the following questions: Are long FS epileptogenic? What governs this epileptogenesis? What are the mechanisms? Are there any predictive biomarkers of the epileptogenic process, and can these be utilized, together with information about the mechanisms of epileptogenesis, for eventual prevention of the TLE that results from long FS and FSE

The impact of continuing bonds between pet owners and their pets following the death of their pet: a systematic narrative synthesis

When a pet dies, owners can experience similar levels of grief as when a human dies. Previous research indicates the role of continuing bonds (CB) when a pet is alive. To understand the impact of these bonds after the pet has died, we conducted a systematic narrative synthesis according to the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses guidelines (PRISMA). Findings were heterogenous, yet there were still parallels in the literature. CB can sometimes aggravate and intensify grief experiences, particularly when pet grief is perceived as disenfranchised grief. However, identifying appropriate bonds can be useful to moderate the intensity of grief and be a valuable mechanism of support. CB can also help post-traumatic growth of owners